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The term cult usually refers to a social group defined by its religious , spiritual , or philosophical beliefs, or its common interest in a particular personality, object or goal. The term itself is controversial and it has divergent definitions in both popular culture and academia and it also has been an ongoing source of contention among scholars across several fields of study. Beginning in the s, cults became the object of sociological study in the context of the study of religious behavior.
The secular anti-cult movement began in the s and it opposed certain groups, often charging them with mind control and partly motivated in reaction to acts of violence committed by some of their members. Some of the claims and actions of the anti-cult movements have been disputed by scholars and by the news media, leading to further public controversy. The term "new religious movement" refers to religions which have appeared since the mids.
Many, but not all of them, have been considered to be cults. Sub-categories of cults include: Doomsday cults , political cults, destructive cults, racist cults, polygamist cults, and terrorist cults. Various national governments have reacted to cult-related issues in different ways, and this has sometimes led to controversy. English-speakers originally used the word "cult" not to describe a group of religionists, but to refer to the act of worship or to a religious ceremony.
The English term originated in the early 17th century, borrowed via the French culte, from Latin cultus worship. The French word, in turn, derived from the Latin adjective cultus inhabited, cultivated, worshipped , based on the verb colere to care, to cultivate.
While the literal original sense of the word in English remains in use, a derived sense of "excessive devotion" arose in the 19th century. This usage experienced a surge of popularity at the time, and extended to other forms of alternative medicine as well. In the English-speaking world the word "cult" often carries derogatory connotations. A new religious movement NRM is a religious community or spiritual group of modern origins since the mids , which has a peripheral place within its society's dominant religious culture.
NRMs can be novel in origin or part of a wider religion, in which case they are distinct from pre-existing denominations. Sociologist Max Weber — found that cults based on charismatic leadership often follow the routinization of charisma.
The concept of a "cult" as a sociological classification was introduced in by American sociologist Howard P. Becker as an expansion of German theologian Ernst Troeltsch 's church-sect typology. Troeltsch's aim was to distinguish between three main types of religious behavior: Becker created four categories out of Troeltsch's first two by splitting church into " ecclesia " and " denomination ", and sect into " sect " and "cult".
In the early s, sociologist John Lofland lived with South Korean missionary Young Oon Kim and some of the first American Unification Church members in California , during which he studied their activities in trying to promote their beliefs and win new members.
It is considered to be one of the most important and widely cited studies of the process of religious conversion. Sociologist Roy Wallis — argued that a cult is characterized by " epistemological individualism", meaning that "the cult has no clear locus of final authority beyond the individual member".
Cults, according to Wallis, are generally described as "oriented towards the problems of individuals, loosely structured, tolerant [and] non-exclusive", making "few demands on members", without possessing a "clear distinction between members and non-members", having "a rapid turnover of membership" and as being transient collectives with vague boundaries and fluctuating belief systems.
Wallis asserts that cults emerge from the "cultic milieu". In Bruce Campbell noted that cults are associated with beliefs in a divine element in the individual. It is either Soul , Self , or True Self. Cults are inherently ephemeral and loosely organized. There is a major theme in many of the recent works that show the relationship between cults and mysticism. Campbell brings two major types of cults to attention. One is mystical and the other is instrumental. This can divide the cults into being either occult or metaphysical assembly.
On the basis that Campbell proposes cults, they are non-traditional religious groups based on belief in a divine element in the individual. There is also a third type. Campbell states that "the kinds of stable forms which evolve in the development of religious organization will bear a significant relationship to the content of the religious experience of the founder or founders. Dick Anthony , a forensic psychologist known for his criticism of brainwashing theory of conversion, [32] [33] [34] has defended some so-called cults, and in argued that involvement in such movements may often have beneficial, rather than harmful effects, saying "There's a large research literature published in mainstream journals on the mental health effects of new religions.
For the most part, the effects seem to be positive in any way that's measurable. In their book Theory of Religion , American sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge propose that the formation of cults can be explained through the rational choice theory. Stark and Bainbridge, in discussing the process by which individuals join new religious groups, have even questioned the utility of the concept of conversion , suggesting that affiliation is a more useful concept.
Beginning in the s authors in the English-speaking world began introducing members of cults as antagonists. Satanists , sects of the Latter Day Saint movement , and Thuggees were popular choices. In the Twentieth century concern for the rights and feelings of religious minorities led authors to most often invent fictional cults for their villains to be members of.
For those belonging to the movement, all religious groups claiming to be Christian, but deemed outside of Christian orthodoxy , were considered cults. The Christian countercult movement asserts that Christian sects whose beliefs are partially or wholly not in accordance with the Bible are erroneous.
It also states that a religious sect can be considered a cult if its beliefs involve a denial of what they view as any of the essential Christian teachings such as salvation , the Trinity , Jesus himself as a person, the ministry of Jesus , the miracles of Jesus , the Crucifixion , the Resurrection of Christ , the Second Coming of Christ , and the Rapture.
Countercult literature usually expresses doctrinal or theological concerns and a missionary or apologetic purpose. Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to evangelize to followers of cults. In the early s, a secular opposition movement to groups considered cults had taken shape. The organizations that formed the secular " anti-cult movement " ACM often acted on behalf of relatives of "cult" converts who did not believe their loved ones could have altered their lives so drastically by their own free will.
A few psychologists and sociologists working in this field suggested that brainwashing techniques were used to maintain the loyalty of cult members. Secular cult opponents belonging to the anti-cult movement usually define a "cult" as a group that tends to manipulate, exploit, and control its members.
Specific factors in cult behavior are said to include manipulative and authoritarian mind control over members, communal and totalistic organization, aggressive proselytizing , systematic programs of indoctrination , and perpetuation in middle-class communities.
While most of these negative qualities usually have real documented precedents in the activities of a very small minority of new religious groups, mass culture often extends them to any religious group viewed as culturally deviant, however peaceful or law abiding it may be.
While some psychologists were receptive to these theories, sociologists were for the most part sceptical of their ability to explain conversion to NRMs.
While scholars may believe that various less dramatic coercive psychological mechanisms could influence group members, they came to see conversion to new religious movements principally as an act of a rational choice. Because of the increasingly pejorative use of the words "cult" and "cult leader" since the cult debate of the s, some academics, in addition to groups referred to as cults, argue that these are words to be avoided. Sociologist Amy Ryan has argued for the need to differentiate those groups that may be dangerous from groups that are more benign.
The movements themselves may have different definitions of religion as well. Casino presents the issue as crucial to international human rights laws. Limiting the definition of religion may interfere with freedom of religion, while too broad a definition may give some dangerous or abusive groups "a limitless excuse for avoiding all unwanted legal obligations".
Cults and large group awareness trainings have generated considerable controversy because of their widespread use of deceptive and indirect techniques of persuasion and control.
These techniques can compromise individual freedom, and their use has resulted in serious harm to thousands of individuals and families. This report reviews the literature on this subject, proposes a new way of conceptualizing influence techniques, explores the ethical ramifications of deceptive and indirect techniques of persuasion and control, and makes recommendations addressing the problems described in the report.
The Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance specifically limits the use of the term to religious groups that "have caused or are liable to cause loss of life among their membership or the general public". John Gordon Clark cited totalitarian systems of governance and an emphasis on money making as characteristics of a destructive cult.
In the opinion of Benjamin Zablocki , a Professor of Sociology at Rutgers University , destructive cults are at high risk of becoming abusive to members. He states that this is in part due to members' adulation of charismatic leaders contributing to the leaders becoming corrupted by power. According to Kranenborg , some groups are risky when they advise their members not to use regular medical care. Some researchers have criticized the usage of the term "destructive cult", writing that it is used to describe groups which are not necessarily harmful in nature to themselves or others.
Saliba writes that the term is overgeneralized. Saliba sees the Peoples Temple as the "paradigm of a destructive cult", where those that use the term are implying that other groups will also commit mass suicide.
Writing in the book Misunderstanding Cults: Rubin complains that the term has been used to discredit certain groups in the court of public opinion. Dawson writes that although the Unification Church "has not been shown to be violent or volatile", it has been described as a destructive cult by "anticult crusaders".
A political cult is a cult with a primary interest in political action and ideology. In their book On the Edge: The word cult is not a term of abuse, as this paper tries to explain. It is nothing more than a shorthand expression for a particular set of practices that have been observed in a variety of dysfunctional organisations.
Lalich, a sociologist and former DWP member. The followers of Ayn Rand were characterized as a "cult" by economist Murray N. Rothbard during her lifetime, and later by Michael Shermer. Although the Collective advocated an individualist philosophy, Rothbard claimed they were organized in the manner of a "Leninist" organization. In Britain , the Workers Revolutionary Party , a Trotskyist group led by the late Gerry Healy and strongly supported by actress Vanessa Redgrave , has been described by others, who have been involved in the Trotskyist movement, as having been a cult or as displaying cult-like characteristics in the s and s.
In his book Les Sectes Politiques: In Lucy Patrick commented: We can overcome cult behavior, he says, by recognizing that we have dependency needs that are inappropriate for mature people, by increasing anti-authoritarian education, and by encouraging personal autonomy and the free exchange of ideas. Cults that teach and practice polygamy , marriage between more than two people, most often polygyny , one man having multiple wives, have long been noted, although they are a minority.
It has been estimated that there are around 50, members of polygamist cults in North America. Anti-Mormon sentiment waned, as did opposition to statehood for Utah. The Smoot Hearings in , which documented that the LDS Church was still practicing polygamy spurred the church to issue a Second Manifesto again claiming that it had ceased performing new plural marriages. By the LDS Church excommunicated those who entered into or performed new plural marriages.
It has been labeled a polygamous cult by the news media and has been the subject of criminal investigation by local authorities. Sociologist and historian Orlando Patterson has described the Ku Klux Klan , which arose in the American South after the Civil War , as a heretical Christian cult, and he has described its persecution of African Americans and others as a form of human sacrifice.
In the book Jihad and Sacred Vengeance: Psychological Undercurrents of History , psychiatrist Peter A. Olsson compares Osama bin Laden to certain cult leaders including Jim Jones , David Koresh , Shoko Asahara , Marshall Applewhite , Luc Jouret and Joseph Di Mambro , and he says that each of these individuals fit at least eight of the nine criteria for people with narcissistic personality disorders.
We need to understand the psychological aspects of how people are recruited and indoctrinated so we can slow down recruitment. We need to help counsel former cult members and possibly use some of them in the war against terrorism. It indoctrinates its members; it forms a closed, totalitarian society; it has a self-appointed, messianic and charismatic leader; and it believes that the ends justify the means.
The Shining Path guerrilla movement active in Peru in the s and s has variously been described as a "cult" [] and as an intense "cult of personality". The People's Mujahedin of Iran , a leftist guerrilla movement based in Iraq , has controversially been described as a political cult and as a movement that is abusive towards its own members.
Masoud Banisadr stated in a May speech in Spain: My answer is no, as there are many peaceful cults at present around the world and in the history of mankind. But if you ask me are all terrorist organisations some sort of cult, my answer is yes. Even if they start as [an] ordinary modern political party or organisation, to prepare and force their members to act without asking any moral questions and act selflessly for the cause of the group and ignore all the ethical, cultural, moral or religious codes of the society and humanity, those organisations have to change into a cult.
Therefore to understand an extremist or a terrorist organisation one has to learn about a cult. The application of the labels "cult" or "sect" to religious movements in government documents signifies the popular and negative use of the term "cult" in English and a functionally similar use of words translated as "sect" in several European languages.
For centuries, governments in China have categorized certain religions as xiejiao Chinese: Fourteen different groups in China have been listed by the ministry of public security as xiejiao. According to Amnesty International , the persecution of Falun Gong includes a multifaceted propaganda campaign, [] a program of enforced ideological conversion and re-education, as well as a variety of extralegal coercive measures, such as arbitrary arrests, forced labour , and physical torture , sometimes resulting in death.
In the Russian Interior Ministry prepared a list of "extremist groups. Next listed were "Pagan cults". Large sects listed included: In the s, the scientific status of the " brainwashing theory " became a central topic in U.
However, no religious or cult members are granted any special immunity from criminal charges. France and Belgium have taken policy positions which accept "brainwashing" theories uncritically, while other European nations, like Sweden and Italy, are cautious about brainwashing and have adopted more neutral responses to new religions.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Cult disambiguation. Cult religious practice , Sociological classifications of religious movements , Holiness movement , Faith healing , Anti-cult movement , and ritual abuse panic.
New religious movements and cults in popular culture. Searching for Objectivity in a Controversial Field. University of Toronto Press. From Sociological-Technical to Popular-Negative". Review of Religious Research.
Religious Research Association, Inc. A Theory of Religion. The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival and Cult Formation.